Developing instrument to measure the glass ceiling phenomenon among female academics in Indonesia

The persistence of the glass ceiling phenomenon in academia indicates the necessity of developing a contextually valid and reliable measurement instrument, particularly within Indonesian higher education institutions. Instruments developed in different cultural settings are often unable to fully capture the structural and sociocultural dynamics influencing female academics’ career advancement in Indonesia. This study aims to develop and validate a comprehensive measurement instrument that reflects these contextual specificities and improves measurement accuracy in assessing career advancement barriers. A quantitative research design was employed using a survey approach. Instrument development was conducted through the integration of two established questionnaires originating from India and Europe, followed by contextual adaptation. Data were collected from female lecturers employed at Catholic universities in Indonesia. The two preliminary questionnaires were administered to the same initial group of female academics. For the final validation, the integrated instrument was administered to the initial respondents together with additional participants, resulting in a larger validation sample. The measurement model was evaluated using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with SmartPLS. Reliability and validity were assessed through composite reliability, Cronbach’s alpha, average variance extracted, and discriminant validity criteria. The findings indicate that the newly developed instrument demonstrates strong reliability and validity across all dimensions, with acceptable thresholds achieved for composite reliability and convergent validity. Compared to the adapted international instruments, the final instrument exhibits higher cultural relevance and improved measurement precision. Several dimensions were more accurately captured, particularly those related to organizational culture, informal networks, and discriminatory promotion practices, indicating a stronger alignment with the Indonesian academic environment. The study contributes to the refinement of measurement approaches in gender-related research by providing a robust and context-sensitive instrument. The instrument is expected to support future empirical studies and institutional policy evaluations aimed at reducing gender disparities in academic career advancement and leadership positions in Indonesia, while also enabling more accurate diagnosis of structural and cultural barriers.